Carbonic Anhydrase

All posts tagged Carbonic Anhydrase

Schizophrenia and Hypoxia

Posted by gdnf on July 12, 2010
Posted in: CO2 Reactivity, Schizophrenia. Tagged: , , , , , , , , , , , .

Obstetric complications are probably one of the most oldest known complications suspected to be involved in the preconditioning of Schizophrenia. They seems to be more common in schizophrenia than in the general population (Cannon et al.) and it seems to be an higher risk to predisposed individuals that and obstetric events should occur (Schulze et al.) and that those patients who have suffered obstetric events often seems to have decreased volume of the hippocampus volume (Stefanis et al.). Such early environmental factors may impact on the development of the dopamine system. For example, hippocampal lesions made in neonatal rats result in increased striatal dopamine levels in post-pubertal rats. (Alquicer et al.)  Animal studies indicate that perinatal damage leads to a labile dopaminergic system vulnerable to sensitization. (Moore et al) suggested that developmental disruption of the hippocampus cortex can result in dysregulation of the dopaminergic inputs to the striatum, increasing the response to novelty, mild stress,or psychotomimetics.
When Schmidt and Kastner did a systematic review of the functional enviromics they suggested that more than 50% of genes potentially associated with schizophrenia, particularly AKT1, BDNF, CAPON, CCKAR, CHRNA7, CNR1, COMT, DNTBP1, GAD1, GRM3, IL10, MLC1, NOTCH4, NRG1, NR4A2/NURR1, PRODH, RELN, RGS4, RTN4/NOGO and TNF, are subject to regulation by hypoxia and/or are expressed in the vasculature.

Finally there presence of Carbon Disulfide (CS2) in the exhaled breath from persons with schizophrenia is also a sign in itself since CS2 inhibits the carbonic anhydrase catalysis (CAC) which could make the slow reaction to hypoxia slower. Part 1 in the Hypo-Thesis of Schizophrenia is about CS2.


References

Cannon M, Jones PB, Murray RM (2002). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1080–1092.

Nicodemus KK, Marenco S, Batten AJ, Vakkalanka R, Egan MF, Straub RE, Weinberger DR. (2008). Serious obstetric complications interact with hypoxia-regulated/vascular-expression genes to influence schizophrenia risk. Mol Psychiatry 13:873–7.

Schmidt-Kastner R, van Os J, Steinbusch HWMS, Schmitz C. (2006). Gene regulation by hypoxia and the neurodevelopmental origin of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 84:253–71.

Schulze K, McDonald C, Frangou S, Sham P, Grech A, Toulopoulou T, Walshe M, Sharma T, Sigmundsson T, Taylor M, Murray RM (2003). Hippocampal volume in familial and non-familial schizophrenic probands and their unaffected relatives. Biological Psychiatry, 53(7), 562–570.

Stefanis N, Frangou S, Yakeley J, Sharma T, O’connell P, Morgan K, Sigmundsson T, Taylor M, Murray RM (1999). Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia: effects of genetic risk and pregnancy and birth complications. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 697–702.

 

Schizophrenia H2S and Carbonic Anhydrase

Posted by gdnf on June 22, 2010
Posted in: Neuroscience, Schizophrenia. Tagged: , , , , , , , , , , .

After the updates of the new page: The Etiology of Schizophrenia – CS2. The work now continues by following the metabolism from CS2 to H2S in what could be and the reactive core in the etiology of Schizophrenia. Up next are the effects of H2S.

But first of all let us see that the CAC-hålet theory shows that the reactive substance CS2 which in itself can cause some of the symptoms in Schizophrenia and is metabolized to Hydrogen Sulfide – H2S in the body, by a new route.  CS2 is also detected in the exhaled air from persons with Schizophrenia.

Aspiration and Respiration

The core function in aspiration is gas exchange with the biosphere and to regulate the breathing to the needs of the cellular respiration. In schizophrenia the Carbonic Anhydrase Catalysis – CAC is slower than normally resulting in a prolonged hypoxia in the mitochondria after increases in the O2 consumption, part of these fundamentals are later shown in the BOLD fMRI where the blood oxygenation levels curve are steeper in persons with schizophrenia.

CS2 and the metabolites dithiocarbamates and H2S are potent inhibitors of CAC, this will result in a further decrease in the function of Carbonic Anhydrase and the CO2 reactivity will get even slower. Or the other way around, H2S is the mother-substance to the reaction.

—

Refrenences
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Inhibition of cytosolic isoforms I, II, III, VII and XIII with less investigated inorganic anions
Alessio Innocentia, Andrea Scozzafavaa and Claudiu T. SupuranCorresponding Author Contact Information, a, E-mail The Corresponding Author
Università degli Studi di Firenze, Laboratorio di Chimica Bioinorganica, Rm. 188, Via della Lastruccia 3, I-50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
2009.

Chengelis, C. P. and Neal, R. A., Studies of carbonyl sulfide toxicity: metabolism by carbonic anhydrase,
Towicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 55, 198, 1980

Baird, T.T., A. Waheed, T. Okuyama, W.S. Sly, & C.A. Fierke (1997) Catalysis and Inhibition
of Human Carbonic Anhydrase IV, Biochemistry, 36: 2669 – 2678.

The possible role of CO2 in producing a post-stimulus CBF
and BOLD undershoot
Meryem A. Yücel1,2, Anna Devor2,3, Ata Akın1 and David A. Boas2*
1 Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Bogˇ aziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey

The Etiology of Schizophrenia CAC-hålet Theory

Posted by gdnf on May 25, 2010
Posted in: CO2 Reactivity, Schizophrenia. Tagged: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .

Manuscript Draft part 1,  part 2

Just like a dream, you entering this world and take your first breath

The Hypo-Thesis of cognition – A Central command in emergency light

In this hypothesis I will show a possible reactive agent in the etiology of Schizophrenia  This first step is showing a map of what CS2 are capable of. The next step will look into earlier steps in the etiological map of the etiology of Schizophrenia, the preconditioning.

Corresponding Author: POW Pär-Olof Wassén,
Corresponding Author’s Institution: CAC-Hålet Theory
First Author: Pär-Olof Wassén

CAC-Hålet theory The reactive agent
-Showing what hypotetically could be a reactive factor in the etiology of Schizophrenia

The thermodynamics of Homo Sapiens largely rely on old CODH/ACS constructions for TCA, carbon to carbon transfer, glucose and lipid metabolism. It is shown in bacterial CODH/ACS that CS2 can alter the thermodynamics of the process by tunnel gating in centre A. (9) Themechanisms in Homo Sapiens enzymology still remains to be elucidated.

CS2 exposure can give symptoms of Schizophrenia. (1) People with Schizophrenia have CS2 in their breath (2) other persons usually don’t. Persons with Schizophrenia appears to react differently and have different partial arterial pressure on CO2 than others (3), (4). The very ground-level carbon to carbon transfer used in CO2 fixation is done by constructions relying on the CODH/ ACS. The distribution of cerebral blood flow is highly sensitive to changes in the arterial CO2. (5) The CO2 regulations during sleep might be more vulnerable. (6) When the CS2 reactivity where measured between groups exposed to CS2 and not exposed to CS2, a remarkable difference was noted in the reactivity to CO2. (7) It has been shown in rats that low PaCO2 inhibits NMDA receptors. (8) The Thermodynamic backbone of human Neural transmittance is dependent on lipid and glucose metabolism, both is altered by the gating in the CODH/ACS tunnel A. One study suggests that the effect of CS2 on learning and memory ability in rats is related to the activity of NOS and the expression of nNOS in the hippocampus. (10)

B-vitamin metabolism disturbance
Exposure to carbon bisulfide results in an increased turnover of the B-vitamin complex (16, 17, 18, 19, 20) CS2 induced elevated serum lipid levels and decreased cholesterol synthesis ( on rat, 176 ppm, inh) are reportedly blocked by feeding nicotinic acid at a dose of 40 mg/kg/da (20) Nicotinic acid has protective effects against CS2 poisoning. CS2 reduces the levels of Nicotinic Acid. (21 22 23 24 25)


Chelating effects on various essential trace metals
Carbon disulfide reacts with the amino groups of amino acids and proteins to form thiocarbamate in blood and tissues (36) thiocarbamates, possessing sulfhydryl groups, may chelate polyvalent inorganic ions. CS2 reacts with endogenous amines to form dithiocarbamates.(26) which could be metabolized back to CS2. An implication is the formation of acid labile CS2 (AL CS2) that will continue to increase, even at steady-state concentrations of CS2, as long as free CS2 is available to the tissue and adequate amine substrates are available. (26) An additional important finding was the slow elimination of AL CS2, suggesting that AL CS2 may accumulate in the body after repeated exposure to CS2. (26) Dithiocarbamates are capable of chelating several polyvalent inorganic ions such as copper and zinc, and
thus may inactivate numerous enzymes in which these ions are essential for activity. (27) The hypothesis of a chelating effect has been supported by the results of some studies (28), Reports of increase in zinc and copper excretion in exposed rats, but also increased copper levels in peripheral nervous tissue of exposed rats (28) (29). Copper and zinc ions are essential for the prosthetic groups of many enzymes. The neurotoxic action of carbon disulfide and its interference with the activity of many enzymes could partly be explained by chelating effects. Zinc is required for the activity of enzymes such as lactic acid dehydrogenase a, carbonic anhydrase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and alcohol dehydrogenase. Copper, represents a cofactor of pyridoxol, a form of vitamin B6. Copper is required for the proper functioning of enzymes such as cytochrome c oxidase, the coenzyme A dehydrogenase system, eg. dopamine ß hydroxylase. The loss of copper from the spinal cord is accompanied by cellular damage, producing tissue degeneration. Disturbances of the central and peripheral nervous systems,
resulting from carbon disulfide exposure, could be connected with the loss of copper due to chelation and consequent inhibitory effects on enzyme systems (30) like Tyrosinase and the very core carbon to carbon transfer.

LOX, Lysyl oxidase is copperdependent. The LOX activity are essential for the mechanical stability of the fibers and other supramolecular assemblies formed by these proteins and the elasticity of elastin. Because collagens and elastin are important components of the extracellular matrix, abnormalities in their modification can be expected to affect many tissues, as seen in lathyrism, a connective tissue disorder caused by the administration of ß-aminopropionitrile, an irreversible inhibitor of lysyl oxidases. (31)
Extracellular copper enzymes initiate the formation of the lysine and hydroxylysine derived crosslinks in collagens and lysine-derived crosslinks in elastin. (32) CS2-mediated protein cross-linking occurs in vivo through the generation of Lys-Lys thiourea and that diethyldithiocarbamate can, through in vivo release of CS2, produce the same cross-linking structure. This observation supports the utility of cross-linking of peripheral proteins as a specific dosimeter of internal exposure for CS2 and provides a biomechanistic explanation to account for the high-molecular-weight neurofilament protein species isolated from rats exposed to CS2 or N, N-diethyldithiocarbamate. (33) High levels of homocysteine will irreversibly inhibit LOX. (34) One study suggest that LDL downregulation of LOX could contribute to the endothelial dysfunction caused by hypercholesterolemia, thus contributing to atherosclerotic plaque formation. (35) It has been reported that the glucose and lipid metabolism is disturbed by carbon disulfide both in experimental animals and in exposed workers, but not to conclusive. There is a large body of indirect information associating abnormal energy metabolism in peripheral neuropathies caused by CS2.


The energy depletion

The pathomorphology of CS2 neuropathy resembles much like other samples originating from an impaired energy metabolism. (37) A study in rats shows the oxidative effects of CS2 exposure, a marked increase in cerebral cortex hippocampus, spinal cord and serum. Reactive oxygen species, Malondialdehyd. Ca2+ and Calmodulin levels increased in in Cerebral Cortex, hippocampus and spinal cord. (38) Carbon disulfide is used in viscose rayon plants as a solvent in the spinning process. It is known to have central and peripheral neurotoxic effects, and among the pleiotrophic conditions it causes are atherosclerotic change, diabetes mellitus, and coronary heart disease (39-42). In previous studies, the radiologic findings of carbon disulfide poisoning were diffuse or focal brain atrophy, infarcts in the

basal ganglia, subcortial white matter and gray matter, and central demyelination (43-47). A few case reports have described the computed tomographic (CT) (43-47) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings (46, 47) Finding of decrease in the GSH contents and GSH-Px, CAT activities in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, spinal cord and serum. The activities of T-AOC also decreased in all three nerve tissues and serum, as time went on and symptom developed. Furthermore, significant correlations between LPO and gait abnormality were observed as symptom developed. Oxidation stress also resulted in increased Ca (2+) concentrations and calmodulin (CaM) levels increases in cerebral cortex, hippocampus and spinal cord. (48) Carbon disulfide intoxication results in alternations of microtubule and microfilament expression, and the alternations might be related to its neurotoxicity. fast changes in beta-tubulin and beta-actin in rats
exposed to CS2 could indicate a rapid change in the cytoskeleton metabolism: The beta-tubulin mRNA increased 207% and beta-actin 94% which might give insights in the metabokinetic prosperities of CS2 on a cytoskeletal level. (49) Many electrophiles toxicants cause synaptic dysfunction by unknown mechanisms. It is recognized that synaptic activity is regulated by the redox state of certain cysteine sulfhydryl groups on proteins. Research indicates that thiolates are receptors for the endogenous nitric oxide (NO) pathway and that subsequent reversible S-nitrosylation finely regulates a broad spectrum of synaptic activities. Electrophilic neurotoxicants like CS2 might, according to a hypothesized mechanism (16) produce synaptic toxicity by modifying these thiols. SNAP-25, NMDA, GAP-43, Methionine adenosyl transferases, v-ATPase are thiol-regulated proteins and protein complexes targeted by NO which further might explains the action of CS2 toxicity. One study suggests that the effect of CS2 on learning and memory ability in rats is related to the activity of NOS and the expression of nNOS in the hippocampus. (17)

Cancer and p53
The p53 gene has been proposed as tumour suppressor and a candidate susceptibility gene in schizophrenia. (52) results of one study indicate that occupational exposure results in a significant increase in P53 CGT>CTT transversions. (53) identified occupational exposure in combination with smoking as a significant risk factor for the mutation. It was concluded that AS-PCR of the P53 273rd codon transversions is a suitable technique for studying the effects of occupational exposure to CS2. (53), (57).

The CAC-Hålet Swedish site ADHD och ADD.

The Etiology of Schizophrenia CAC-Hålet Theory

Posted by gdnf on May 25, 2010
Posted in: CO2 Reactivity, Schizophrenia. Tagged: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , .

From Part 1

part II the CAC-hålet theory

The etiology of Schizophrenia could be linked to endogenous Carbon disulfide CS2 production. The manufacture and exposure to endogenous CS2, could probably act in months after months before showing some of the symptoms of high CS2 exposure (Hallucinations, Psychosis and personality changes)

Suggestions

To ensure a proper analysis of earlier undetectable biomarkers one might consider gas-analysis from skin and breath as an biomarker and emission source, since the CS2 otherwise could leave undetected through the biggest organ –  the skin. I propose analysis of total air content in a closed chamber with subjects naked to avoid contamination with techniques for gas detection (59), (60) to reveal the biometrics of human endogenous CS2 production. Which has not been done to my knowledge.

By practising these suggestions it might be easier to understand and prevent the disease by detecting the prodromal and active  systems conditions besides the genetic vulnerability and map out what role CS2 play in the etiology of Schizophrenia.

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RAPID COMMUNICATION Novel Injury Mechanism in Anoxia and Trauma of Spinal Cord White Matter: Glutamate Release via Reverse Na+-dependent Glutamate Transport Shuxin Li1, Geoff A. R. Mealing2, Paul Morley2, and Peter K. Stys1

Flashes of Death & CO2 reactivity

Posted by gdnf on April 19, 2010
Posted in: CO2 Reactivity, Schizophrenia. Tagged: , , , , , .

A not so well known fact is about Schizophrenia is that the individuals  having it, have less CO2 reactivity, but what about it? Does it really matters, what do you think?

Oxford Journal
In1948 Michitomo Hayashi (1885-1973) organized a schizophrenia
research group. At that time he was able to measure the cerebral arteriovenous differences in blood gas concentrations of schizophrenic patients. He correlated these differences with the course of schizophrenic episodes and found that in times of symptom remission there was an overproduction in the venous carbon dioxide concentration, indicating an increase of the respiratory quotient.

Cerebral blood flow responses to inhaled carbon dioxide in schizophrenia

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a potent cerebrovasodilator; even mild changes in CO2 are associated with marked changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF). We measured CBF before and after 5% CO2, inhalation in 19 medicated patients with schizophrenia and 16 normal volunteers. Another group of 16 volunteers had 2 CBF measurements under resting conditions. Although both patients and controls showed marked CBF increase during CO2 inhalation, the CBF response was significantly less in the patients. Change in CBF per mm of CO2 was lower in the patients. The second group of controls did not show significant differences between the 2 resting CBF measurements.

CO2  in near death experiences

The recent observations about why people see light’s in the end of the tunnel in the near death experience suggest that – Near-death experiences may result from elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood: study NYtimes daily.  BBC
New light on near-death flashes. So of cause it can cause an extra vision here and there even if you have schizophrenia, in fact there are substances measured at persons with schizophrenia that halts the action of Carbonic Anhydrase, which is the enzyme that catalyses CO2.

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Coming up:
A new theory about the aetiology of schizophrenia.